ISSUES PRESENTATIONS 1. The Cartesian method: ideal mathematical certainty, methodical doubt
and criterion of truth.
2. Descartes idea concept and types.
3. Concept of substance in Descartes and their types.
demonstrative arguments for the existence of God and the world.
4. Anthropological dualism. Mechanism and freedom.
5. Moral provisional.
model 1 Well under the reasoning that I just to know the nature of God as far as mine is capable of knowing, bastábame consider all things to find in myself an idea and see whether it was perfectly possessed, and was sure that indicated any imperfection in God, but all the others if they are in, and saw that doubt, inconstancy, sadness and other such things can not be in God, because I very much wished he I see me free of them. In addition, I had several ideas of sensible things and body, because even assuming that everything I dreamed and saw and imagined was false, he could not deny, however, that these ideas were truly in my thoughts. But having already known to me very clearly that the intelligent nature is distinct from the body, and considering that all composition denotes dependency and that dependency is manifestly a defect, I reasoned why not be a perfection in God to consist of those two natures, and therefore God was not made, whereas if there were bodies in the world, or some intelligence or other natures that were not quite perfect, should depend on its being of divine power, to the point can not survive without him for a moment.
I wanted to inquire after other truths, and having been proposed in order to geometers, which I conceived as a continuous body or a space infinitely extended in length, width and height or depth, divisible into several parts that can have various shapes and sizes, and be moved or transferred in all respects, as the geometers suppose all this in object, I reviewed some of their simplest demonstrations, and having recognized that this great certainty that everybody gives these shows is based only on evidence that are conceived, according to the rule before that, I noticed also that there was nothing in them I make sure of the existence of its object, as, for example, I saw well that if we assume a triangle, it is necessary that the three angles are equal two straight, but I sure saw nothing in the world is any triangle, whereas if he should consider my idea of \u200b\u200ba perfect being, there was that it falls just as the idea of a triangle is understood that the angles are equal to two right angles, or in an area where all parts are equally distant from the center, and even yet more evidence, and that therefore it is so true Unless God is that perfect, is or exists, as it can be a demonstration of geometry.
But if there are some who believe that it is difficult to know what is God, and even what is the soul is because they never rise above the spirit of sensible things and are so used to discuss everything to the imagination, which is a particular way of thinking for material things, that it is not imaginable seems to them not intelligible. Which is quite evident in the maxim that the philosophers themselves admit as true in schools, and they say that nothing in the understanding that was not first in the sense [Nihil est in intellectu, quod non prius fuerit in sensu] where, however, some who have never been the ideas of God and the soul, and I think that those who want to use their imagination to understand these ideas, are such as to hear sounds or smell the smells would like to use their eyes, and yet there is this difference between those and these: that the sense of sight does not ensure less than the truth of its goals the smell and sound of their own, while neither the imagination and the senses can never be sure of anything, and not covered by the understanding.
R. Descartes, Discourse on Method, Part IV
I. Questions
1. Analyze the student on meaning in the text are the concepts of "imagination" and "understanding."
2. Text summarizes the ideas in your summary displaying argumentative or narrative structure developed by the author
3. Descartes idea concept and types.
4. Briefly discuss any aspect of the thought of the author of the text you deem important in any of these ways: on its relationship with other philosophers, relevant historical events (especially if they are contemporaries of the author or are related to their life) or significant features the contemporary world
model 2
But as soon as I had acquired some general notions of physics and started testing them in various particular difficulties, then noting how far they can take and how different they are from the principles that have been used so far, keep them hidden thought it was great sin, which violated the law requires us to seek the general good of all men, as it is in our power. For these notions have taught me that it is possible to useful knowledge for life, and that instead of speculative philosophy, taught in schools, it is possible to find a practice, through which, knowing the strength and action of fire, water, air, stars, the heavens and all other bodies that surround us as distinctly as we know the various trades of our artisans, we could seize the same way in all uses they are their own, and that sort us as owners and possessors of nature. Which is highly desirable, not only by the invention of a myriad of devices that allow us to enjoy without any work from the fruits of the earth and all the amenities in it, but mainly for the preservation of health, that is, without doubt, first good and the foundation of the other goods of this life, because the mind itself depends on both the temperament and disposition of the body's organs, which, if you can find some means to make men wiser and more commonly have been working here, I think it is in medicine where we have to look. Truth is that now used contains few useful things so remarkable, but without this it will dismiss it, I have certainly no one, not even those who have made it their profession, who does not confess that as is known, in this science, is almost nothing compared to what remains to be determined and that we could deliver a myriad of diseases, both of body and spirit, and perhaps even the weakness that old age brings, if we had enough knowledge of its causes and all remedies that nature has provided. And as I had conceived the plan to use my whole life in much needed research science, and as he had found a way that I thought that, following it, it must surely find it, unless prevented by the brevity of life or lack of experience, I reasoned that there is no better remedy against these two obstacles, but to communicate accurately to the public how little he had found and invite the good wits to try to move forward, helping each according to his inclination and his forces, to the experiences that have to do, and also communicating to the public all that figured out, so that, starting the last where his predecessors have done, and gathering and the lives and work of several, llegásemos all together far beyond where you can get one in particular.
And yet observed, with regard to experiences that are both more necessary as has advanced in knowledge, it is preferable to the principle of presenting themselves to our senses and we can not ignore little thought to do, to find other more rare and studied, and the reason for this is that those rarest sometimes deceive us, if we no longer know the causes of more common diseases and depend on circumstances that are almost always so special and so small, it is very difficult to notice them.
R. Descartes, Discourse on Method, Part VI
I. Questions
1. Analyze the student the meanings they have in the text the concepts of "speculative philosophy" and "experiences."
2. Summarizes the ideas of the text showing in your summary argumentative or narrative structure developed by the author
3. Concept of substance in Descartes and their types.
demonstrative arguments for the existence of God and the world.
4. Briefly discuss any aspect of the thought of the author of the text you deem important in any of these ways: on its relationship with other philosophers, relevant historical events (especially if they are contemporaries of the author or are related to their life) or significant features the contemporary world
model 3
Thus, since the senses sometimes deceive us, I wanted to assume that there is anything that is as they make us think. And as there are men who make mistakes in reasoning, even about the simplest matters of geometry, and commit fallacies, I thought that I was so liable to err like any other and rejected as false all the reasonings which had previously taken for demonstrations. Finally, considering that the same thoughts we have while awake may also occur to us when we sleep, but none in this case is true, I resolved to pretend that everything that had previously entered my mind was not more true than the illusions of my dreams . But then I noticed that even trying to think this way, everything is fake, it was necessary for me to think of it, was something. And noticing that this truth-I think, therefore I am, was so firm and sure the most extravagant suppositions of the skeptics were not able to move her, I thought I could accept it without scruple as the first principle of philosophy he sought. Examining carefully
after what I was and see what I could pretend I had no body and that there was any world or any place where I found, but could not pretend why I was not, but on the contrary, through what he thought of doubting the truth of the other things are obviously still very true and I was, while, with only stop thinking, but everything else would have imagined been true, no longer had reason to believe that I was, I knew why I was a substance whose whole essence or nature is to think, and does not need to be, any place nor depends on any material thing. So this I, that is, the soul for which I am what I am, is entirely distinct from the body and it is even easier to find him, and though the body were not, the soul would not be as it is.
R. Descartes, Discourse on Method, Part IV
I. Questions
1. Set the students the word "substance" in Descartes.
2. Text summarizes the ideas in your summary displaying argumentative or narrative structure developed by the author
3. Dualism anthropological. Mechanism and freedom.
4. Briefly discuss any aspect of the thought of the author of the text you deem important in any of these ways: on its relationship with other philosophers, relevant historical events (especially if they are contemporaries of the author or are related to their life) or significant features the contemporary world
model 4 Finally, to begin to rebuild the housing in which one lives, not having enough down and have a storehouse of materials and architects or have exercised self in architecture and have also drawn carefully designing the new building, but also must be provided in any other room in which to spend the duration comfortably work, and therefore to not remain irresolute in my actions while reason obliged me to be in my judgments, and not let of living, of course, with the best chance I could, I had to fix a provisional moral was not but three or four maxims, which I'll gladly inform you.
The first was to follow the laws and customs of my country, with firm constancy preserving the religion in which God's grace did I instruct a child, everything else rigiéndome views by more modern and more away from any excess were commonly accepted in practice by the most judicious of those with whom they would live. For having begun to not count for anything with my own, since he thought all to submit a review, I was sure he could not do better than follow the more sensible. And while among the Persians and the Chinese is perhaps as wise men as with us, it seemed that the most useful was to accommodate those who have to live with, and that to know what their true opinions, should pay more attention as well made in what they said, not only because, given the corruption of our manners, there are few people who consent to say what they believe, but also because many are unaware, for the act of thought by which one believes one thing is different from that other by which one knows to create it, and therefore often is that without it . And among several views, also admitted, he chose the most moderate, not only because they are always the most convenient for practice, and likely the best, and that any excess is usually bad, but to walk away unless the true path, if error, if, having chosen one end, was the other that should be followed. And in particular I considered as excessive by any promise which alienates some of his own freedom, not that I disapproved of the laws, to remedy the inconsistency of weak minds, allowed when you have a good plan, or trade security in indifferent designs, contracts to make vows or undertaking to perseverance, but as seen in the world anything to remain always in the same state, and the like, as far as I am concerned, I expected more and more perfect my judgments, not worsen, I would have thought to commit a grave sin against good sense if, for only the fact then approve something, forcing me to have it as well for good later, perhaps having it stopped being, or having stopped I estimate it as such.
R. Descartes, Discourse on Method
Questions 1. Analyze the student on meaning in the text the notions of "moral status" and "laws."
2. Text summarizes the ideas in your summary displaying argumentative or narrative structure developed by the author
3. Moral provisional.
4. Briefly discuss any aspect of the thought of the author of the text you deem important in any of these ways: on its relationship with other philosophers, relevant historical events (especially if they are contemporaries of the author or are related to their life) or significant features the contemporary world
model 5 do not know if I speak of the first meditations that I made there, they are metaphysical and so unusual, you may not like the whole world. However, so you can assess whether the foundations that I have taken are quite strong, I feel somewhat obliged to say some of those reflections. Long ago had warned that, with regard to customs, it is sometimes necessary to follow opinions that we know very uncertain, as if they were unquestionable, and this has been said already in the front, but on this occasion wishing I only deal search for the truth, I thought I should do the opposite and reject as absolutely false everything in which I could imagine the least doubt, to see if, after the fact this, in my belief would not be something that was entirely indubitable. Thus, since the senses deceive us, at times, wanted to assume that there is anything that is just as they presented to us in the imagination, and because some men err in reasoning, even about the simplest matters geometry, and commit fallacies, I thought that I was so liable to error as anyone else, and rejected as false all the reasons I previously had for demonstration, and, finally, considering that all the thoughts that come to us while awake may also occur to us during sleep, then none is true, I resolved to pretend that everything which until then had not entered my mind were more real than the illusions of my dreams. But then I noticed that when I would think that luck, that everything is false, it was necessary for me, that I thought, was something, and noting that this truth: "I think, therefore I am" was so strong and secure that the most extravagant suppositions of the skeptics are unable to move her, I thought that I could receive, without scruple as the first principle of philosophy that was looking for.
then closely examine what I was, and I sell it I could pretend that he had no body and that there was any world or any place where I found, but not I could pretend they were not, but rather, through what he thought of doubting the truth of alia, that was very true and obviously I was, while, with only stop thinking, if everything else I had imagined was true, no longer had reason to believe that I was, they knew I was a substance whose whole essence and nature is to think, and not the soul for which I am what I am, is entirely different the body and even easier to know it, and though the body were not the soul would not be as it is.
After that, I thought, in general, it takes a proposition to be true and some, as having just find one that knew what it was, I thought I should also know what it is that certainty. And having noticed that the proposition "I think, therefore I am" there is nothing that assures me that I speak the truth, but I see very clearly that you must be thinking, I thought I could support this general rule: that the very things with b clearly and distinctly are all true, and that there is a problem only to note which ones distinctly conceive.
R. Descartes, Discourse on Method I.
Questions 1. Discuss the student the meaning they have in the text the notions of "doubt" and "certainty."
2. Summarizes the ideas of the text showing in your summary argumentative or narrative structure developed by the author
3. Descartes method and rationale.
4. Briefly discuss any aspect of the thought of the author of the text you deem important in any of these ways: on its relationship with other philosophers, relevant historical events (especially if they are contemporaries of the author or are related to their life) or significant features the contemporary world
Model 6 had studied a bit, when I was younger, the parts of philosophy, logic, and mathematical analysis and algebraic geometers, three arts or science to be, apparently, to contribute something to my purpose. But when I examined, I had to note that with regard to logic, its syllogisms and most of the other instructions given, the more useful to explain to other things already known or even, as the art of Lully, to talk ignored without trial in which to learn them. And while it contains, indeed, many good and true precepts, is, however, mixed with them, many other harmful or unnecessary, to separate them is almost as difficult as taking a Diana or a Minerva from a block of uncut marble. Then, as regards the analysis of ancient and modern algebra, except that it does not refer a very abstract matters which do not appear to be of no use, the first is always so constrained to consider the figures, it can not exercise the understanding without greatly tiring the imagination, and second, whether its practitioners have been subjected to certain rules and certain figures, which have made it a confusing art and dark, good to mess wit, rather than a science which cultivates. For all these reasons, I thought we had to find some other method that combines the advantages of those three, excluding its flaws. And as the multitude of laws often serve very sorry to services, with a significantly better governed when there are few, but very strictly observed, so also in Instead of the large number of precepts that logic holds, I thought I would suffice next four, of course take a firm and constant resolution not stop watching them for once.
It was the first to accept as true anything, and did not know with what evidence is, that is, carefully to avoid precipitation and prevention, and not understanding in my judgments nothing more than what is presented as clearly and distinctly my spirit, that there was no chance to doubt it.
The second, to divide each of the difficulties that will examine, in many parts wherever possible and in many requiring their best solution.
Third, orderly conduct my thoughts, starting with the simplest objects and easier to learn, to move up gradually, gradually, to the knowledge of the most compounds, even if an order among those who do not naturally precede.
And finally, do all one counts as a comprehensive and reviews so general, that he might be sure not to miss anything.
locked Those long series of very plausible reasons and easy, which geometers accustomed to using, to reach their most difficult demonstrations, habianme given occasion to imagine that all things, that man can acquire knowledge, they follow each other in the same manner, and that with only refrain to admit as true is one that does not always save and order necessary to deduct from each other, there can be none, for which it is located far away or hidden it is, it will not come to meet and find out. And I became very tired in searching for what was necessary to start, because I knew that for the most simple and easy to learn, and considering that, among all those who until now have investigated the truth in the sciences, mathematicians have only been able to find some demonstrations, that is, some certain and evident reasons, no doubt he had to start with themselves that they have examined, though not expected out of here no other purpose but to accustom my mind to be fed with real and not to content with false reasons.
R. Descartes, Discourse on Method I.
1.Analice
issues the student the meaning in the text is the notion of method.
2. Text summarizes the ideas in your summary displaying argumentative or narrative structure developed by the author
3. Value method of scientific knowledge and the moral
4. Briefly discuss any aspect of the thought of the author of the text you deem important in any of these ways: on its relationship with other philosophers, relevant historical events (especially if they are contemporaries of the author or are related to their life) or features significant in the contemporary world
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